| GROUNDNUT TECHNICAL | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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print the page Introduction
The cultivated forms of groundnut fall into 4 categories, viz. Spanish
(Arachis hypogaea L. ssp fastigiata Waldron var vulgaris
Harz), Valencia (Arachis hypogaea L ssp fastigiata Gregory
et al.), Virginia bunch and Virginia runner [Arachis hypogaea
L. ssp hypogaea (Krapovikas & Rigoni) var hypogaea Gregory
et al.]. The Spanish and Valencias are characterized by sequential
branching and flowering, early maturity leading to a more annual habit,
reproductive main and secondary branches and non-dormant seeds, while those
of Virginia exhibit alternate vegetative and reproductive branching, alternate
flowering with no flowers on main axis and have relatively more extended
duration of flowering and maturity. In India groundnut breeding was first
taken up in the erstwhile composite states of Mysore (Hebbal), Madras (Palakuppam,
South Arcot), Madhya Pradesh (Akola), Uttar Pradesh 9Kanpur), Mumbai (Karad
and Kopergaon) and Punjab (Samrala). Initially characters like pod yield,
kernel size, shelling (%) and maturity duration received major attention.
Based on introductions and selections from indigenous and exotic germplasm
a number of promising strains were developed in various states, viz. TMV
series 1, 2, 3, 4 from Tamil Nadu; HG 1 and HG 3 from Karnataka; AK 12-24,
AK 10, AK 8-11 and Spanish improved from Akola of the then Madhya Pradesh;
PG 1 from Punjab; Kopergaon 1 and Kopergaon 3, Karad 4-11 and Karad 5-8
from Maharashtra; and T 9, T 18, T23 and T24 from Uttar Pradesh. Some of
the varieties such as TMV 2, AK 12-24, Kopergaon 1, Punjab 1 etc, developed
during the period 1935-1950, are popular even today in several parts of
the country. Subsequently in sixties work carried out in Gujarat (Junagadh)
resulted in the development of J 11, a Spanish bunch type with a wider adaptability,
resistance to collar-rot and aflatoxin which has been a serious constraint
limiting exports of groundnut extractions. Together with TMV 2, J 11 (also
known as SB XI) has become more popular under a wide range of agro-climatic
conditions. The other significant achievements on the varietal front during
sixties were the release of TMV series 6, 7 and 8 (Virginia bunch) from
Tamil Nadu; S 206 and S 230 (Spanish bunch) from Karnataka; C 501 (Virginia)
from Rajasthan. The productivity potentials of available cultivars of groundnut
in different parts of the country were further improved with release of
20 more high-yielding varieties in seventies which include 9 of Spanish
bunch (Tamil Nadu: TMV 9, POL 2, Co 2, Co 1, TMV 12; Karnataka: Dh.3-30;
Haryana: MH 1; Madhya Pradesh: Jyoti; Gujarat: Gaug 1), 6 of Virginia bunch
(Andhra Pradesh: Kadiri 3; Tamil Nadu: TMV 10 and TMV 11; Maharashtra: TG
1; Bihar: BG 1 and BG 2) and 1 of Valencia category (MH 2 from Hisar) and
4 of Virginia runner (Kadiri 71-1 of Andhra Pradesh, M 13 of Punjab, Chandra
of Uttar Pradesh and GAUG 10 of Gujarat). Notable achievement during this
period was the development of early maturing bunch variety JL 24 (Phule
Pragati) from an exotic accession, EC 94943. The early-flowering and synchronous
pod maturity character and the associated advantage it confers in areas
where end-season drought is common, have made it one of the most popular
national varieties. The establishment of the ICRISAT, Hyderabad, and the
consequent availability of a wide range of germplasm collections from centres
of genetic diversity, for the first time provided unique opportunity to
groundnut breeders to broaden their genetic base and select for types/forms
representing desirable combinations of both Virginia (high dry-matter production,
deeper and extensive root system, tolerance to insect pests and diseases,
fresh seed dormancy), Spanish bunch and Valencias (early flowering and maturity,
synchronous podding, high harvest index). Under the AICORPO, since 1967
a number of Virginia bunch types, viz. Kaushal (Uttar Pradesh), UF-70-703
(Maharashtra), M 145 and 197 (Punjab), runner genotypes, viz. GG 11 (Gujarat),
M 37 and M 335 and SG 87 (Punjab), and Spanish bunch genotypes, viz. Kisan,
Jawan (Orissa); KRG 1, Dh 8 (Karnataka); GG 2 (Gujarat); and Co 2 (Tamil
Nadu) were developed and released for commercial cultivation. Despite the
above developments the productivity levels of groundnut in the country are
subjected to high degree of fluctuations owing to its high degree of interaction
with environment together with a number of biotic and abiotic stresses.
Extensive screening of germplasm resources has now resulted in the identification
of a number of lines of potential value in the breeding programme. Increased
use of such germplasm accessions in the breeding programmes resulted in
the development and release of a number of varieties possessing tolerance/resistance
to abiotic and biotic factors in the last 1 decade. The notable ones are:
ICGS 11, ICGS 44, ICGV 86325, TAG 24 and DRG 12 (tolerant to BND), Girnar
1, ICG 44, ICGV (FDRS) 10, ICGV 86590 and CSMS 84-1 (multiple resistance
to pests and disease and drought tolerance) and Tirupati 2 and Tirupati
3 (tolerant to Kalahasti Melady). From 1936 to 1995 a total number of 85
improved groundnut varieties (40 of Spanish bunch, 3 of Valencia, 25 of
Virginia bunch and 17 of Virginia runner groups) were developed and released
for various groundnut growing states or regions. Under good management these
varieties gave 4.5 to 5 tonnes yield/ha. Unlike in rainy-season (kharif)
groundnut there has been a remarkable increase in the area and production
of winter (rabi)/summer groundnut in the country since 1970. Breeding
programmes have been stepped up only in recent years for developing early
maturing (100 days), high-yielding varieties that are specifically adapted
to the rabi/summer conditions such as paddy fallows of south India,
residual moisture conditions of Orissa and West Bengal, summer groundnut
areas of Gujarat and Maharashtra and spring situations of Punjab and Uttar
Pradesh. The varieties exclusively released for rabi/summer cultivation
include Spanish bunch group, viz. RSHY 1, TAG 24, DRG 12, TG 26 and ICGS
1. The HPS groundnut holds enormous export-potential. There are few varieties
that possess bold kernels, viz. 13, Somnath, BAU 13, TKG 19A and B 95, and
a separate breeding programme is yet to be started for the improvement of
HPS types which will lay emphasis on export qualities, viz. higher sugar
content, good colour and flavour on roasting and resistance to aflatoxin
producing Aspergillus flavus.
According to the Department of Agricultural Research and Education, ICAR, Government of India, in 1999-2000, Groundnut CSMU 884 and HNG 10 were released at the national level and LGN 2 and ALR 3 were state release but notified by the Central Variety Release Committee. DRG 12, DRG 17 and ICGS 44 and the breeding lines TSP 60, GB 36 and PBS 12006 can be the source of resistance against bruchid beetle, an emerging serious storage pest in groundnut. In an effort to induce functional male sterility as a means to enhance natural cross-pollination some chemical gametocides were tried. Indole acetic acid among them, caused the highest pollen sterility (30.2%).
Fresh and dormancy is a highly desirable trait in Spanish types of groundnut. The advanced breeding cultures PBS 12115, Code 5, MOR 204 and MOR 304 showed 3-4 weeks of fresh seed dormancy, and PBS 16004, PBS 16005 and PBS 16006 possessed 1-3 weeks of fresh seed dormancy. For the first time in groundnut, studies were conducted to understand compatibility relationships between the architecture and behaviour of the different habit groups of groundnut and inter-crops. The best genotypic combination was M 13 Virginia type of groundnut + BDN 2 of pigeonpea (tall-medium) which gave the highest total groundnut equivalent yield of 3.63 tonnes/ha. Relative water content and specific leaf area can be taken as important selection criterion for groundnut for identifying high water-use efficiency in drought areas. Groundnut CSMG 84-1 M 335 have been identified as low oil-high protein-high stability index (SI) cultivators, and are suitable for table purpose and processing. ALR 1 has been identified as moderate protein-high SI cultivar, suitable for table purpose, and ICGS 11, BAU 13, Somnath and TKG 21, TG 22 and GG 11 showed 100%, somatic embryos induction at 3 levels of auxin used. Assured production of multiple shoots and rooting of shoots could be achieved with a very high degree of success. Breeder seed to the tune of 219.77 tonnes of 37 groundnut varieties was produced in Kharif 1998. A starter dose of 10 kg N/ha is necessary for rainfed groundnut at the early stages of crop growth. A top dressing of additional dose of nitrogen in the form of ammonium sulphate, is recommended after 30 days of sowing. It depends upon the growth and effectiveness of root nodules. Application of phosphatic fertilizer to groundnut promotes root growth, multiplication of rhizobium and also helps the crop to tide over the moisture stress. Single super-phosphate is the best source of phosphorus as it contains phosphorus (15%), calcium (17.5%) and sulphur (12.5%). Unless the soil has less than 150 kg K2O/ha, application of potassic fertilizer is not recommended. The NPK fertilizer doses recommended for the major groundnut-growing states in India are: 15 kg N, 40-60 kg P2O5 and 0-45 kg K2O/ha. All the P2O5 and K2O and half of the N should be incorporated in the soil before sowing. Besides N, P, K, Ca and S are the major nutrients required by the groundnut crop. Gypsum is the cheapest source of calcium (25%) and sulphur (18.6%). Well powdered gypsum should be applied on the soil surface as close to the base of the plant as possible when it is in the peak flowering stage. Since, there is little residual effect of gypsum, it is necessary to repeat the application every season. In India, application of gypsum is recommended in the sandy-loam soils @ 500 kg/ha in 2 split doses, half at planting and the other half at the peak flowering stage. Micro nutrients play an important role in stepping up the productivity of groundnut. The soils in the Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Punjab are deficient in zinc. Application of zinc sulphate to the soil @ 25 kg/ha, once in 3 years has been recommended. When zinc deficiency is noticed in the standing crop, as characterized by yellowing from mid-ribs of young leaves and red spots in the old leaves, foliar application of 0.2% zinc sulphate is recommended. Soils in Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra are deficient in boron. For correcting the deficiency, either soil application of borax @ 5-10 kg/ha along with N and P fertilizers or foliar spray of 0.1% borax, depending upon the severity of the disease, was recommended. In Maharashtra, spraying of 0.1 PPM boric acid (300 mg boric acid in 500 litres water) at 30 and 50 days after sowing resulted in 10 and 15% increased yield respectively. Iron chlorosis in groundnut, prevalent in the calcareous black soils of Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Karnataka and Maharashtra can be corrected by spraying 1% ferrous sulphate plus 0.1% ammonium citrate. The Spanish bunch varieties, JL 24 and GG 2, were found to be tolerant to iron chlorosis. According to DARE, farmyard manure @ 15 tonnes/ha. and 100% recommended dose of fertilizer gave maximum pod yield with cost: benefit ratio as high as 4.2. For confectionery groundnut varieties combined Fe, Zn and B significantly increased pod and kernel yields. Weeds cause maximum damage (30-50% yield loss) to the groundnut crop up to 45 days after sowing. It is advisable to do one or two hand hoeing and weeding depending upon soil type and extent of weed infestation. The earthing up should also be taken up simultaneously with intercultural operations. Basic idea of earthing up is toy promote easy penetration of pegs in soil as also to provide more are to spread. Application of herbicides accompanied by 1 or 2 hoeing was found to control the weeds effectively. The recommended herbicides for groundnut in India are Lasso (alachlor) @ 5 litres/ha or Butachlor @ 0.5 kg ai/ha as pre-emergence sprays within 2 days of sowing or Basalin (Fluchloralin @ 1 kg ai/ha and a post-emergence weedicide Fusilade (Fluazifobhutyle) @ 0.25 kg ai/ha resulted in an yield increase of 71 and 50% respectively over unweeded check. In India, the major insect pests attacking groundnut are leafminer (Aproaerema modicella), whitegrub (Lachnosterna consanguinea). Red hairy caterpillar (Amsacta albistriga), leaf eating noctuid caterpillars like Spodoptera, Heliothis, Anarsia and Plusia, and sucking pests like aphids, jassids, thrips and white flies. The technology developed to control these pests is given here. Aphids, jassids, thrips and white flies: Spray Monocrotophos 0.05% or dimethoate 0.05%. A several testing centres of (AICORPO) these 2 chemicals not only gave significantly superior yields but also resulted in the higher cost: benefit ratio (CBR). The CBR for these chemical treatments ranged from 6.33 to 19.68. Intercropping of mungbean with groundnut should be avoided since thrips, which are the vectors of BND, multiply on this crop. Leafminer: Light traps may be set up to attract and destroy the moths. The economic threshold studies indicated that chemical control should be adopted when the larval population reaches 61-70/100 leaflets. Carbaryl 50 WP 0.2% spray was most economical for controlling this pest, since CBR obtained in the AICORPO trials ranged from 6.52 to 9.56. Red hairy caterpillar: The pupae may be handpicked and destroyed in the field after summer ploughing. Immediately after the receipt of rains, light traps may be set up to attract and destroy the moths. The egg masses and larvae, which can easily be detected, may be collected and destroyed. Before the caterpillars develop hairs on their bodies spraying Monocrotophos 40 EC @ 1,000 ml/ha can effectively control them. A biological control measure through the spray of Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV) at the TNAU, Coimbatore, was found effective and economical. The virus may be sprayed twice against early instar larvae @ 250 larval equivalents/ha. Spodoptera, Helicoverpa, Anarsia and Plusia: These pests are nocturnal in habit and hence control measures have to be taken up either during early morning hours or late evening hours, or preferably during night. To control these pests, spray 0.05% Quinolphos @ 400 ml/ha (CBR 1:6.2). Other insecticides like Carbaryl 0.2%, Endosulfan 0.04%, and Parathion 0.05% are also effective. Whitegrub: It is a major problem for groundnut production in the sandy loam soils of north India. Due to whitegrub menace, the area under groundnut has declined considerably during the last 2 decades in Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Punjab. The following integrated control was developed to keep the pest under check:
According to DARE, Bruchid beetle (Caryedon serratus) caused 19-60% losses in groundnut stored for five months. Ten potent bacterial isolates of Bacillus thuringiensis have been identified to tackle this menace. Isolate DHL 1 showed maximum larvicidal potency of 95%. Other potent cultures are BrN1, BINS 5 and SLN 1. The insecticidal crystal protein (ICP), involved in killing the larvae, was isolated from the potent cultures. An insect parasite Anisopteromalus calandrae has also been identified. It is a very fast growing and parasites pupa with almost 100% lethality. Trichoderma viride (Monitor WP) @ 4 g/kg seed gave maximum control of stem-rot, caused by Sclerotium rofsit, followed by treatment with Carbendazim 2 g/kg seed and soil application with castor-cake @ 1,000 kg/ha. Among seed treatments, 2% dried neem leaf powder has been found best in reducing intensity of early leaf spot (ELS), late leaf spot (LLS) and rust. Soil application of Mustard-cake @ 1 tonne/ha significantly reduced intensity of ELS, LLS and rust. Groundnut + sorghum intercropping reduced ELS by 21.7%. However, the maximum reduction of 42.8% of rust was recorded with groundnut + pearl millet intercropping. Though foliar application of Carbendazim 0.05% + Mancozeb 0.2% at 50 days after sowing was the best for the management of foliar diseases, spraying 5% aqueous mustard-cake extract was next best, which reduced ELS by 27.68%, LLS by 38.75%, rust by 28.56% and stem-rot by 68.49%. Mustard-cake, a cheap and easily available byproduct gave indications to be an important agent in disease management. LLS and rust with Difenoconazole 0.1% or Carbendazim 0.1% gave maximum control, and resulted in highest cost : benefit ratio. Effective control against leafminer was obtained through spraying Quinalphos 1% at 40 days after sowing. Maximum control of Spodoptera could be obtained with Prophonophos at 1% followed by Quinalphos 0.05%. Neem-seed-kernel extract (3 to 4%) and nuclear polyhedrosis virus spray (250 larval eqivalents/ha) efficiently suppressed the sucking and defoliating pests, besides resulted in higher pod yields. The important diseases occurring on groundnut are Cercospora leaf spots (Cercos pora arachidicola and Phaeoisariopsis personata), rust (Puccinia arachidis), collar rot, dry-root rot, stem rot (Sclerotium rolsfii) and bud necrosis disease (Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus –TSWV). For controlling these diseases the following control measures were developed. Cercospora leaf spots and rust: Carbendazim 0.05% + Mancozeb 0.2% should be sprayed 2 or 3 times, at 2-3 weeks interval, starting from 4-5 weeks after planting. In the AICORPO trials this combination has resulted in the best control of both the diseases and gave CBR ranging from 1:14.8-24.4. Collar rot and dry root-rot: The seeds should be treated with 5 g Thiram or 3 g of Mancozeb or 2 g Carbendazim/kg kernels. Stem rot: The seeds should be treated as per collar rot. In the soils infected with stem rot causing fungi, frequent disturbances of plant and soil should be avoided to prevent the stems from coming in contact with the organism. In such soils, herbicides may be used to minimize disturbance of the soil. Bud necrosis disease: Thrips, which transmit the disease, should be controlled by spraying 400 ml Rogor or 360 ml Methyldematon/ha. Cultural methods like early planting, closer spacing and intercropping with a millet crop are advocated. Growing tolerant varieties like Kadiri 3, ICGS 11 and ICGS 44 will be helpful. The National Research Centre for Groundnut, Junagadh, has developed 2 effective strains of Bradyrhizobium viz. IGR 6 and IGR 40, for higher productivity of groundnut in rabi/summer season. Multi-location testing of these 2 strains gave increased pod yields ranging from 9 to 18% in IGR 6 and 6 to 14% in IGR 40. Based on these results, IGR 6 and IGR 40 were recommended in 1987 for inoculation to rabi/summer bunch groundnut. Tests conducted in the farmers’ fields in 4 districts of West Bengal also indicated significant increase in both number of nodules/plant and pod yield over the uninoculated control by both IGR 6 and IGR 40 strains. While mean nodule number/plant was 42 in uninoculated control, it was 113 (169% increase) in IGR 6 and 106 (152%) in IGR 40. The increase in pod yield ranged from 14 to 16% and 8 to 14% over the control in the plants inoculated with IGR 6 and IGR 40 strains respectively. Additionally these strains were found to be tolerant to seed treating fungicides, Thiram and Bavistin even at 100 PPM. As such these strains can safely be inoculated on groundnut seeds pre-treated with the fungicides whereas another effective strain, NC 92, recommended for inoculation to groundnut in kharif was found sensitive to Thiram. Besides, being effective, tolerant to fungicides, IGR 6 and IGR 40 are also found highly competitive in forming higher percentage of nodules in competition with native Bradyrhizobium strains. These strains are currently being commercially produced and supplied to farmers by several agencies spread all over India. |
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